Aristotle

In the 4th Century BC, Aristotle, personal tutor of Alexander the Great, wrote many important books, including a book on physics or "nature" (i.e., reality).

The modern Greek word "φύση" (FEE-see) ≈ "nature". The modern Greek word "φυσική" (fee-see-KEE) ≈ "physics" which is the study of the reality of time and space as we know it.

Many years later, in cataloging his works, a collection of works that were hard to categorize were bound together and put after the Aristotle's book on "physics".

This collection of works become known as «τα μετά τα φυσικά», or, literally, "the (book) after the physics" where "physics" had to do, in part, with observed reality, mathematical abstraction, and the correspondence between them.

In the "after the physics" book, Aristotle addressed causation, mathematics, a divine creator(s), etc. The word "metaphysics" became known as heavenly or out-of-world ideas (religious, etc.).

A recurring theme in Aristotle's work on "metaphysics" was that of separating logical reality from physical reality.

A useful $13 book (Spring 2021), no commentary, just the text, is Aristotle's Metaphysics in English Latin and Ancient Greek from Hermes Language Reference. ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1973405368.

The Apostle Paul, and many others, have often used a teaching method demonstrated and used by Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) , personal tutor of Alexander the Great, some 400 years earlier and still used today.

Tell them what you are going to say.
Say it.
Tell you what you told them.

Aristotle does not appear to have defined this method. He just used it a lot and others copied him.

The word "eristic", as in a reasoning process, goes back to Aristotle and is discussed in his works Prior analytics and Sophistical refutations (and referenced from his other works).

Aristotle did not like the idea of "sophists" using bad logic to make money from people by convincing them of things that were not true. These things were often the things that these people wanted to hear. This is similar to a false prophet in the Bible, a false teacher throughout history. etc.

Logical reasoning in Greek philosophy often took the form of a syllogism that uses deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion.

Some people think syllogisms are "silly" and will use the pun "sillygism" to refer to a "syllogism".

More: Logic: syllogisms

Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

It is not enough to win a war; it is more important to organize the peace. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The high-minded man must care more for the truth than for what people think. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

A friend to all is a friend to none. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The worst form of inequality is to try to make unequal things equal. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Those that know, do. Those that understand, teach. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

A typical modern progression in teaching is the following, partly tongue-in-cheek but with some basis in reality.

Those that cannot do, teach.
Those that cannot teach, administrate.

The secret to humor is surprise. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Aristotle wrote a book called On Sophistic Refutations in which he detailed the "false reasoning" used by Sophists (from the Greek word for "wisdom") who would use invalid logic to convince others of ideas to make money for themselves. In English, "sophistic" logic or "false reasoning" is "sophistry".
One of the many types of invalid logic detailed by Aristotle was "eristic" reasoning. Paul uses that word often but it is often translated, without the "bad logic" connection, as "strife"

More: Eristic reasoning creates strife and contention

The ancient Greek word "παραλογίζομαι" ≈ "reason falsely" is used often by Aristotle in his work On sophistic refutations. Paul uses this word in Colossians - a book that uses many Aristotelian words. Apparently "false reasoning" in "teaching" was a problem at the church at Colossae.

Colossians 2:4 And this I say, lest any man should beguile you with enticing words. [kjv]

τουτο λεγω ινα μηδεις υμας παραλογιζηται εν πιθανολογια [gnt]

… decipiat … subtilitate sermonum [v]

The Latin for "enticing words" is "subtle sermons".

One meaning: Beware lest anyone use false reasoning on you with subtle sermons.

More: Colossians 2:1-23 Philosophy and false reasoning through subtle sermons

Galatians 3:5 He therefore that ministereth to you the Spirit, and worketh miracles among you, doeth he it by the works of the law, or by the hearing of faith? [kjv]

ο ουν επιχορηγων υμιν το πνευμα και ενεργων δυναμεις εν υμιν εξ εργων νομου η εξ ακοης πιστεως [gnt]

Energy is a word and concept that has ancient roots but had a different meaning in ancient times. Aristotle first used the ancient Greek word "ενέργεια" ≈ "actuality" for "actuality", literally, "in working".

The ancient Greek word "δύναμις" ≈ "power, might, strength, potentiality" and is used by Aristotle for something that has "potential".

KJV (King James Version) : ... worketh miracles among you ...
Paraphrase: ... actualizes the potential in you ...

The root word is "work" and is used many times in the LXX (Septuagint) and GNT (Greek New Testament).

More: The actual potency and inner workings of energy

The energy of the mind is the essence of life. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The quote means "The actuality/thinking of the mind is the essence/potentiality of life".
Aristotle first coined the ancient Greek word "ενεργεί" ≈ "actuality" (in his usage) and that means, literally, "inner work" or "in working". That is, "thinking" in contrast to a "potential".

This might be compared and/or contrasted with "I think, therefore I am" from Descartes.

More: René Descartes

In his Sophistic Refutations, Aristotle presents, at length, the fallacy of the affirming of the consequent. This fallacy is often used in marketing. Here is an example.

"champions eat Wheaties" does not mean that
"eating Wheaties makes one a champ".

Other names: converse error (logic, not the shoe company), confusion of necessity and sufficiency. Proper reversal of the conditional probability requires Bayes Rule.

More: Conditional probability

More: Bayesian statistics and models

Aristotle says that in addition to showing why apparent but false reasoning is false, one should, in addition, show why it appeared to be true.

Recognizing bad reasoning based on what one thinks is true is harder than just turning down the actual "temptation".

More: Matthew 4:1-11 Examining evil temptations

Aristotle uses the Greek word for "coming to be" or "birth" many times in his works. One of Aristotle's works is the ancient Greek word "Περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς" ≈ "On the coming to be and passing away" (of the universe).

English: ... for coming-to-be and passing-away occur when things come together and are dissolved. Loeb #400, p. 166.

Greek: συνιόντων γὰρ καὶ διαλυομένων ἡ γένεσις συμβαίνει καὶ ἡ φθορά. [314b]

Aristotle uses a Greek word for "dissolving" that is not the Greek word translated as "dissolve" in the GNT.

Jesus says that he did not come to "dissolve the law" (incorrect translation).
Jesus says that he did not come to "reside in the law" (correct translation). He came to "reside" with sinners such as Zacchaeus (same Greek word).

More: Matthew 5: 17 Leave the light on but do not use the law as a residence inn

More: John 3 Born from the beginnings

The ancient Greek word "διάκρινω" ≈ "separate, distinguish, discern"

Aristotle uses this word often in his work Meteorologica. In this case, the "through separation" is that of "evaporation" or "separation of elements".

English: ... then it must be air and the water that surrounds the earth - for vapour is evaporated water. (Loeb #397, p. 19)

Greek: ...λείπεται δ' ἀέρος καὶ τοῦ περὶ τὴν γῆν πᾶσαν ὕδατος· ἡ γὰρ ἀτμὶς ὕδατος διάκρισίς ἐστιν. [340b]

More: A haughty and high-up meteor

More: Discerning doubts about doubts

The ancient Greek word (rough breathing) "ὅρος" ≈ "boundary, definition" and is the source of the English word "horizon".
Aristotle often emphasizes the importance of "definitions" in identifying bad logic. Of course, Aristotle then defines what he means by a "definition".

English: A definition is a phrase indicating the essence of something. (Loeb#391, p. 281)

Greek: Ἔστι δ´ ὅρος μὲν λόγος ὁ τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι σημαίνων, [Topica, 101b-102a]

"λόγος" ≈ "rational explanation, word".
"σημαίνω" ≈ "to indicate" and is the source, through French, of the English word "semantics".

The aspirated rough breathing comes through in Latin and into English in the sound of the letter "h". Aristotle used this word for "definition" many times. This was only used for a while in the first century BC and discontinued but persists in ancient Greek notations to this day.

More: Equivocation deception between names and meanings

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The ancient Greek word "ἑρμηνεύς" ≈ "interpreter" was introduced to science and philosophy by Aristotle in his work entitled "Περὶ Ἑρμηνεία" ≈ "About meaning". The Latin title is "De Interpretatione" ≈ "On Interpretation" .

The word "hermeneutics" comes from the ancient Greek word "ἑρμηνεύς" ≈ "interpreter" as to the meaning of something. This word appears often in the GNT. The field of "hermeneutics" is the study of the meaning of texts, especially Biblical texts. This includes syntax, semantics and both textual and non-textual (i.e., implied, nonverbal, etc.) meaning.

More: Syntax and semantics

English: It is just as the Pythagoreans say, the whole world and all things in it are summed up in the number three; for end, middle and beginning give the number of the whole, and their number is the triad. (Loeb#338)

Greek: Καθάπερ γάρ φασι καὶ οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι, τὸ πᾶν καὶ τὰ πάντα τοῖς τρισὶν ὥρισται· τελευτὴ γὰρ καὶ μέσον καὶ ἀρχὴ τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἔχει τὸν τοῦ παντός, ταῦτα δὲ τὸν τῆς τριάδος. Aristotle: On the Heavens [268a]

Notice how Aristotle says

"end", "middle" and "beginning" (top-down backward-chaining) rather than
"beginning", "middle" and "end" (bottom-up forward chaining).

Aristotle says the "everything" while the translation says the "whole world". Some in modern Greek makes a play on words with "everything" and a panda (animal) since the words are spelled and pronounced the same.

More: Everything and all things: But wait, there's more

More: Top-down vs. bottom-up

The ancient Greek word "προσεύχομαι" ≈ "pray, vow, request" as in putting forth a "request" or "wish". Aristotle uses the shorter form "εὐχή" ≈ "prayer,wish".

The modern Greek word "ευχή" (ev-KHEE) ≈ "religious blessing, wish" and has been influenced by the GNT.

English: We call propositions those only that have truth or falsity in them. A prayer is, for instance, a sentence but neither has truth nor has falsity. Let us pass over on such as their study more properly belongs to the province of rhetoric or poetry. (Loeb#325, p. 121)

Greek: ἀποφαντικὸς δὲ οὐ πᾶς, ἀλλ' ἐν ᾧ τὸ ἀληθεύειν ἢ ψεύδεσθαι ὑπάρχει· οὐκ ἐν ἅπασι δὲ ὑπάρχει, οἷον ἡ εὐχὴ λόγος μέν, ἀλλ' οὔτ' ἀληθὴς οὔτε ψευδής. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἄλλοι ἀφείσθωσαν, - ῥητορικῆς γὰρ ἢ ποιητικῆς οἰκειοτέρα ἡ σκέψις,… Aristotle: On Interpretation [17a]

Have you ever heard someone "pray" in a church setting and, in their "prayer", state "propositions" that are "true" or "false"? This happens when someone states a "proposition" in a prayer and implicitly assumes and/or implies that what is said is "true" or "false" (depending on context).

Discuss: Should a religious "prayer" state only "requests" or "wishes" (and the reality background of them) and avoid "propositions" that are "true" or "false"? Explain your reasoning.

Discuss: Should a pastor inject personal opinions on politics or social issues as claims or statements in a prayer? This is often done to convince those in the pews that God has approved of these views.

Matthew 6:9 After this manner therefore pray ye: Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. [kjv]

6:10 Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven. [kjv]

6:11 Give us this day our daily bread. [kjv]

6:12 And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. [kjv]

6:13 And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil: For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen. [kjv]

The only part of the Lord's Prayer that is not a "wish" or "request" (except the address part at the beginning) is the part that is not in some Greek manuscripts. The TR (Textus Receptus) appears to have added this part.

More: Matthew 4:1-11 Examining evil temptations

More: 1 Timothy 4:1-16 Conversational interactions by prayer

Aristotle points out that we reason with "names" that represent "things" and not the "things" themselves.

More than one name can represent the same thing.
Names can represent more than one thing.

This leaves room for deception using words and "apparent logic". When you "drink" a "cup" you are not literally drinking the cup itself.
The English word "equivocation" means a deception by means of making names (or things) equal that are not actually equal. This is sometimes called "doublespeak".

More: Equivocation deception between names and meanings

Example: All men are created equal. Women are not men, so all women are not created equal.

Sometimes equivocation is used to "obfuscate" by using another word.

Details are left as a future topic.

In his On Sophistic Refutations, Aristotle says that from ancient times, nature (truth) and law (opinion) are opposites and that justice goes with the law (opinion) but not with nature (truth).

English: Nature and Law are opposites, and justice is a good thing according to the law but not according to nature. Loeb #400, p. 73.

Greek: ἐναντία γὰρ εἶναι φύσιν καὶ νόμον, καὶ τὴν δικαιοσύνην κατὰ νόμον μὲν εἶναι καλόν, κατὰ φύσιν δ´ οὐ καλόν Sophistic Refutations [173b]

"φύση" ≈ "nature, reality" (reality truth) as in "physics".
"νόμος" ≈ "custom, law" (opinion truth) as in "Deuteronomy" as in "second law". The Greek for "iniquity" is "against the law".
"δικαιοσύνη" ≈ "righteousness, justice".

Whenever Jesus, Paul, etc., use the word for "righteousness" one must determine from context what is meant. There may be double meanings.

"righteousness"

More: Coining a customary distribution law of iniquity

Aristotle continues about "nature" as "truth" and "law" as "opinion".

English: In the view of the ancients what accorded with nature was the truth. While what accorded with law was the general opinion of mankind. Loeb #400, p. 73.

Greek: Ἦν δὲ τὸ μὲν κατὰ φύσιν αὐτοῖς τὸ ἀληθές, τὸ δὲ κατὰ νόμον τὸ τοῖς πολλοῖς δοκοῦν. Sophistic Refutations [173b]

"φύση" ≈ "nature, reality" as in "physics".
"ἀλήθεια" ≈ "truth" as in "not oblivion" or "not forgotten"
"νόμος" ≈ "custom, law" as in "Deuteronomy" as in "second law". The Greek for "iniquity" is "against the law".
"δοκοῦν" ≈ "opinion, expectation".
"δόξα" ≈ "opinion, expectation" as in "doxology".

More: Greek truth as reality

More: Hebrew truth as reality

More: Luke 18:1-8 Parable of the unjust judge

English: Again, Is what the learner learns that which he learns? A man learns a slow march quick; it is not then what he learns that is meant but how he learns it. Again, Does a man trample on that through which he walks? But he walks through the whole day. Was not what was meant not what he walks through but when he walks? Just as when we talk of a man drinking a cup, we refer not to what he drinks but to that out of which he drinks. (Loeb#100, p. 115-117)

Greek: Καὶ "Ἆρ´ ὃ μανθάνει ὁ μανθάνων, τοῦτ´ ἔστιν ὃ μανθάνει; μανθάνει δέ τις τὸ βραδὺ ταχύ. " Οὐ τοίνυν ὃ μανθάνει ἀλλ´ ὡς μανθάνει εἴρηκεν. Καὶ "Ἆρ´ ὃ βαδίζει τις πατεῖ; βαδίζει δὲ τὴν ἡμέραν ὅλην. " Ἢ οὐχ ὃ βαδίζει ἀλλ´ ὅτε βαδίζει εἴρηκεν, οὐδὲ τὸ τὴν κύλικα πίνειν ὃ πίνει ἀλλ´ ἐξ οὗ. Aristotle: Sophistic Refutations [189a]

In his work on Physics, Aristotle is refuting a claim by Anaxagoras.

English: Besides, since the subtraction of anything from a given body must reduce the size of that body, and since a mass of flesh cannot be indefinitely great or small, it is clear that from the minimum of flesh no other body can be extracted, for that would reduce it below its minimum. (Loeb #228, p. 47)

Greek: πρὸς δὲ τούτοις, εἰ ἅπαν μὲν σῶμα ἀφαιρεθέντος τινὸς ἔλαττον ἀνάγκη γίγνεσθαι, τῆς δὲ σαρκὸς ὥρισται τὸ ποσὸν καὶ μεγέθει καὶ μικρότητι, φανερὸν ὅτι ἐκ τῆς ἐλαχίστης σαρκὸς οὐθὲν ἐκκριθήσεται σῶμα· ἔσται γὰρ ἐλάττων τῆς ἐλαχίστης. [188a]

"ἐλάχιστος" ≈ "fewest, least, smallest". The usage of this word appears to be more abstract (according to some criteria) than concrete.
"μικρότερος" ≈ "smallest" and is the source of the English prefix "micro". The usage of this word appears to be more concrete than abstract.
"μεγας" ≈ "great" and is the source of the English prefix "mega".
"ανάγκη" ≈ "necessity, constraint, compulsion, force" and is used by Amos, Jesus, Barnabas, etc., as the word "compulsion" in "yoke" of "compulsion".

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