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Aristotle
1. Aristotle
Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) was the personal tutor of Alexander the Great and wrote many important works in science and philosophy.
Physics
Metaphysics (the book "after" physics)
Sophistic Refutations (identifying and refuting bad logic)
... and many others ...
2. Half done
Well begun is half done. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
A software engineering principle, based on the 80-20 rule, is that 80% of the functionality (of a software program) can be achieved with 20% of the (overall) effort. The remaining 20% of the functionality takes 80% of the (overall) effort.
3. Dimensions
Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) in his works called Metaphysics dealt with the ideas of abstract dimensions of mathematics and the apparent dimensions of reality.
4. Tutor of Alexander the Great
Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) was the personal tutor of Alexander the Great who command an army of over 10,000 soldiers traveling over 10,000 miles in 15 years (mostly on foot), never losing a battle, and conquering the known world at the time.
5. Aristotle
In the 4th Century BC, Aristotle, personal tutor of Alexander the Great, wrote many important books, including a book on physics or "
nature" (i.e., reality).
The modern Greek word
"φύση" (FEE-see) ≈ "nature". The modern Greek word
"φυσική" (fee-see-KEE) ≈ "physics" which is the study of the reality of time and space as we know it.
6. Metaphysics
Many years later, in cataloging his works, a collection of works that were hard to categorize were bound together and put after the Aristotle's book on "
physics".
This collection of works become known as «
τα μετά τα φυσικά», or, literally, "
the (book) after the physics" where "
physics" had to do, in part, with observed reality, mathematical abstraction, and the correspondence between them.
7. Book
In the "
after the physics" book, Aristotle addressed causation, mathematics, a divine creator(s), etc. The word "
metaphysics" became known as heavenly or out-of-world ideas (religious, etc.).
A recurring theme in Aristotle's work on "
metaphysics" was that of separating logical reality from physical reality.
8. Book
A useful $13 book (Spring 2021), no commentary, just the text, is
Aristotle's Metaphysics in English Latin and Ancient Greek from Hermes Language Reference. ISBN-13 : 978-1973405368.
9. Teaching method
The Apostle Paul, and many others, have often used a teaching method demonstrated and used by
Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) , personal tutor of Alexander the Great, some 400 years earlier and still used today.
Tell them what you are going to say.
Say it.
Tell you what you told them.
Aristotle does not appear to have defined this method. He just used it a lot and others copied him.
10. Eristic reasoning
The word "eristic", as in a reasoning process, goes back to Aristotle and is discussed in his works Prior analytics and Sophistical refutations (and referenced from his other works).
Aristotle did not like the idea of "sophists" using bad logic to make money from people by convincing them of things that were not true. These things were often the things that these people wanted to hear. This is similar to a false prophet in the Bible, a false teacher throughout history. etc.
11. Logic: syllogisms
Logical reasoning in Greek
philosophy often took the form of a
syllogism that uses deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion.
Some people think syllogisms are "
silly" and will use the pun "
sillygism" to refer to a "
syllogism".
12. Aristotle: wisdom
Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
This is a
self-referential or
reflexive statement.
13. Mental tolerance
It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
14. Education
Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
15. Patience
Patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
16. Educated
The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
17. War and peace
It is not enough to win a war; it is more important to organize the peace. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
18. Truth
The high-minded man must care more for the truth than for what people think. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
19. Friends
A friend to all is a friend to none. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
20. Poverty
Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
21. Equality
The worst form of inequality is to try to make unequal things equal. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
22. Teaching
Those that know, do. Those that understand, teach. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
A typical modern progression in teaching is the following, partly tongue-in-cheek but with some basis in reality.
Those that cannot do, teach.
Those that cannot teach, administrate.
23. Humor
The secret to humor is surprise. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
24. Art
The aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
25. Meaning and interpretation
26. Sophistic refutations
Aristotle wrote a book called
On Sophistic Refutations in which he detailed the "
false reasoning" used by Sophists (from the Greek word for "
wisdom") who would use invalid logic to convince others of ideas to make money for themselves. In English, "
sophistic" logic or "
false reasoning" is "
sophistry".
One of the many types of invalid logic detailed by Aristotle was "
eristic" reasoning. Paul uses that word often but it is often translated, without the "
bad logic" connection, as "
strife"
27. Colossians 2: False reasoning
The ancient Greek word
"παραλογίζομαι" ≈ "reason falsely" is used often by Aristotle in his work
On sophistic refutations. Paul uses this word in Colossians - a book that uses many Aristotelian words. Apparently "
false reasoning" in "
teaching" was a problem at the church at Colossae.
Colossians 2:4 And this I say, lest any man should beguile you with enticing words. [kjv]
τουτο λεγω ινα μηδεις υμας παραλογιζηται εν πιθανολογια [gnt]
… decipiat … subtilitate sermonum [v]
The Latin for "
enticing words" is "
subtle sermons".
One meaning:
Beware lest anyone use false reasoning on you with subtle sermons.
28. The actual potency and inner workings of energy
Galatians 3:5 He therefore that ministereth to you the Spirit, and worketh miracles among you, doeth he it by the works of the law, or by the hearing of faith? [kjv]
ο ουν επιχορηγων υμιν το πνευμα και ενεργων δυναμεις εν υμιν εξ εργων νομου η εξ ακοης πιστεως [gnt]
Energy is a word and concept that has ancient roots but had a
different meaning in ancient times. Aristotle first used the ancient Greek word
"ενέργεια" ≈ "actuality" for
"actuality", literally,
"in working".
The ancient Greek word
"δύναμις" ≈ "power, might, strength, potentiality" and is used by Aristotle for something that has
"potential".
KJV (King James Version) : ... worketh miracles among you ...
Paraphrase: ... actualizes the potential in you ...
The root word is
"work" and is used many times in the
LXX (Septuagint) and
GNT (Greek New Testament).
29. Energy of the mind
The energy of the mind is the essence of life. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)
The quote means "
The actuality/thinking of the mind is the essence/potentiality of life".
Aristotle first coined the ancient Greek word
"ενεργεί" ≈ "actuality" (in his usage) and that means, literally,
"inner work" or
"in working". That is, "
thinking" in contrast to a "
potential".
This might be compared and/or contrasted with "
I think, therefore I am" from Descartes.
30. Error of the converse
In his
Sophistic Refutations, Aristotle presents, at length, the fallacy of the
affirming of the consequent. This fallacy is often used in marketing. Here is an example.
"champions eat Wheaties" does not mean that
"eating Wheaties makes one a champ".
Other names:
converse error (logic, not the shoe company),
confusion of necessity and sufficiency. Proper reversal of the conditional probability requires
Bayes Rule.
31. Show why deceptions was deceptive
Aristotle says that in addition to showing why apparent but false reasoning is false, one should, in addition, show why it appeared to be true.
Recognizing bad reasoning based on what one thinks is true is harder than just turning down the actual "
temptation".
32. Aristotle and coming to be
Aristotle uses the Greek word for "
coming to be" or "
birth" many times in his works. One of Aristotle's works is the ancient Greek word
"Περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς" ≈ "On the coming to be and passing away" (of the universe).
English: ... for coming-to-be and passing-away occur when things come together and are dissolved. Loeb #400, p. 166.
Greek: συνιόντων γὰρ καὶ διαλυομένων ἡ γένεσις συμβαίνει καὶ ἡ φθορά. [314b]
Aristotle uses a Greek word for "
dissolving" that is
not the Greek word translated as "
dissolve" in the
GNT.
Jesus says that he did not come to "dissolve the law" (incorrect translation).
Jesus says that he did not come to "reside in the law" (correct translation). He came to "reside" with sinners such as Zacchaeus (same Greek word).
33. Aristotle: Meteorology
The ancient Greek word
"διάκρινω" ≈ "separate, distinguish, discern"
Aristotle uses this word often in his work
Meteorologica. In this case, the
"through separation" is that of
"evaporation" or
"separation of elements".
English: ... then it must be air and the water that surrounds the earth - for vapour is evaporated water. (Loeb #397, p. 19)
Greek: ...λείπεται δ' ἀέρος καὶ τοῦ περὶ τὴν γῆν πᾶσαν ὕδατος· ἡ γὰρ ἀτμὶς ὕδατος διάκρισίς ἐστιν. [340b]
34. Defining a definition
The ancient Greek word (
rough breathing)
"ὅρος" ≈ "boundary, definition" and is the source of the English word
"horizon".
Aristotle often emphasizes the importance of
"definitions" in identifying bad logic. Of course, Aristotle then defines what he means by a
"definition".
English: A definition is a phrase indicating the essence of something. (Loeb#391, p. 281)
Greek: Ἔστι δ´ ὅρος μὲν λόγος ὁ τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι σημαίνων, [Topica, 101b-102a]
"λόγος" ≈ "rational explanation, word".
"σημαίνω" ≈ "to indicate" and is the source, through French, of the English word "semantics".
The aspirated rough breathing comes through in Latin and into English in the sound of the letter "
h". Aristotle used this word for "
definition" many times. This was only used for a while in the first century BC and discontinued but persists in ancient Greek notations to this day.
35. Hermeneutics
36. Aristotle: Top down reasoning
English: It is just as the Pythagoreans say, the whole world and all things in it are summed up in the number three; for end, middle and beginning give the number of the whole, and their number is the triad. (Loeb#338)
Greek: Καθάπερ γάρ φασι καὶ οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι, τὸ πᾶν καὶ τὰ πάντα τοῖς τρισὶν ὥρισται· τελευτὴ γὰρ καὶ μέσον καὶ ἀρχὴ τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἔχει τὸν τοῦ παντός, ταῦτα δὲ τὸν τῆς τριάδος. Aristotle: On the Heavens [268a]
Notice how Aristotle says
"end", "middle" and "beginning" (top-down backward-chaining) rather than
"beginning", "middle" and "end" (bottom-up forward chaining).
Aristotle says the
"everything" while the translation says the
"whole world". Some in modern Greek makes a play on words with
"everything" and a panda (animal) since the words are spelled and pronounced the same.
37. Aristotle: Propositions and prayers
The ancient Greek word
"προσεύχομαι" ≈ "pray, vow, request" as in putting forth a
"request" or
"wish". Aristotle uses the shorter form
"εὐχή" ≈ "prayer,wish".
The modern Greek word
"ευχή" (ev-KHEE) ≈ "religious blessing, wish" and has been influenced by the
GNT.
English: We call propositions those only that have truth or falsity in them. A prayer is, for instance, a sentence but neither has truth nor has falsity. Let us pass over on such as their study more properly belongs to the province of rhetoric or poetry. (Loeb#325, p. 121)
Greek: ἀποφαντικὸς δὲ οὐ πᾶς, ἀλλ' ἐν ᾧ τὸ ἀληθεύειν ἢ ψεύδεσθαι ὑπάρχει· οὐκ ἐν ἅπασι δὲ ὑπάρχει, οἷον ἡ εὐχὴ λόγος μέν, ἀλλ' οὔτ' ἀληθὴς οὔτε ψευδής. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἄλλοι ἀφείσθωσαν, - ῥητορικῆς γὰρ ἢ ποιητικῆς οἰκειοτέρα ἡ σκέψις,… Aristotle: On Interpretation [17a]
Have you ever heard someone
"pray" in a church setting and, in their
"prayer", state
"propositions" that are
"true" or
"false"? This happens when someone states a
"proposition" in a prayer and implicitly assumes and/or implies that what is said is
"true" or
"false" (depending on context).
Discuss: Should a religious
"prayer" state only
"requests" or
"wishes" (and the reality background of them) and avoid
"propositions" that are
"true" or
"false"? Explain your reasoning.
Discuss: Should a pastor inject personal opinions on politics or social issues as claims or statements in a prayer? This is often done to convince those in the pews that God has approved of these views.
38. Matthew 6:9-13 Lord's Prayer
Matthew 6:9 After this manner therefore pray ye: Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. [kjv]
6:10 Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven. [kjv]
6:11 Give us this day our daily bread. [kjv]
… dayghwamlice hlaf syle … to dayg. [wes]
yyue … dai …breed … othir substaunce… [wy]
Geve … daye … dayly breede. [ty]
6:12 And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. [kjv]
6:13 And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil: For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen. [kjv]
The only part of the Lord's Prayer that is
not a "
wish" or "
request" (except the address part at the beginning) is the part that is
not in some Greek manuscripts. The
TR (Textus Receptus) appears to have added this part.
39. Names and things
Aristotle points out that we reason with "
names" that represent "
things" and not the "
things" themselves.
More than one name can represent the same thing.
Names can represent more than one thing.
This leaves room for deception using words and "
apparent logic". When you "
drink" a "
cup" you are not literally drinking the cup itself.
The English word
"equivocation" means a deception by means of making names (or things) equal that are not actually equal. This is sometimes called "
doublespeak".
40. Equivocation
Example:
All men are created equal. Women are not men, so all women are not created equal.
Sometimes equivocation is used to "
obfuscate" by using another word.
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Details are left as a future topic.
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41. Nature and law and justice
In his
On Sophistic Refutations, Aristotle says that from ancient times, nature (truth) and law (opinion) are opposites and that justice goes with the law (opinion) but not with nature (truth).
English: Nature and Law are opposites, and justice is a good thing according to the law but not according to nature. Loeb #400, p. 73.
Greek: ἐναντία γὰρ εἶναι φύσιν καὶ νόμον, καὶ τὴν δικαιοσύνην κατὰ νόμον μὲν εἶναι καλόν, κατὰ φύσιν δ´ οὐ καλόν Sophistic Refutations [173b]
"φύση" ≈ "nature, reality" (reality truth) as in "physics".
"νόμος" ≈ "custom, law" (opinion truth) as in "Deuteronomy" as in "second law". The Greek for "iniquity" is "against the law".
"δικαιοσύνη" ≈ "righteousness, justice".
Whenever Jesus, Paul, etc., use the word for
"righteousness" one must determine from context what is meant. There may be double meanings.
☐ God's
"righteousness" (opinion, glory, etc.).
☐ man's
"righteousness" (opinion, glory, etc.).
42. Truth and opinion
43. Aristotle: Sophistic Refutations
English: Again, Is what the learner learns that which he learns? A man learns a slow march quick; it is not then what he learns that is meant but how he learns it. Again, Does a man trample on that through which he walks? But he walks through the whole day. Was not what was meant not what he walks through but when he walks? Just as when we talk of a man drinking a cup, we refer not to what he drinks but to that out of which he drinks. (Loeb#100, p. 115-117)
Greek: Καὶ "Ἆρ´ ὃ μανθάνει ὁ μανθάνων, τοῦτ´ ἔστιν ὃ μανθάνει; μανθάνει δέ τις τὸ βραδὺ ταχύ. " Οὐ τοίνυν ὃ μανθάνει ἀλλ´ ὡς μανθάνει εἴρηκεν. Καὶ "Ἆρ´ ὃ βαδίζει τις πατεῖ; βαδίζει δὲ τὴν ἡμέραν ὅλην. " Ἢ οὐχ ὃ βαδίζει ἀλλ´ ὅτε βαδίζει εἴρηκεν, οὐδὲ τὸ τὴν κύλικα πίνειν ὃ πίνει ἀλλ´ ἐξ οὗ. Aristotle: Sophistic Refutations [189a]
44. Diminutive: cup
45. Aristotle: Physics
In his work on
Physics, Aristotle is refuting a claim by
Anaxagoras.
English: Besides, since the subtraction of anything from a given body must reduce the size of that body, and since a mass of flesh cannot be indefinitely great or small, it is clear that from the minimum of flesh no other body can be extracted, for that would reduce it below its minimum. (Loeb #228, p. 47)
Greek: πρὸς δὲ τούτοις, εἰ ἅπαν μὲν σῶμα ἀφαιρεθέντος τινὸς ἔλαττον ἀνάγκη γίγνεσθαι, τῆς δὲ σαρκὸς ὥρισται τὸ ποσὸν καὶ μεγέθει καὶ μικρότητι, φανερὸν ὅτι ἐκ τῆς ἐλαχίστης σαρκὸς οὐθὲν ἐκκριθήσεται σῶμα· ἔσται γὰρ ἐλάττων τῆς ἐλαχίστης. [188a]
"ἐλάχιστος" ≈ "fewest, least, smallest". The usage of this word appears to be more abstract (according to some criteria) than concrete.
"μικρότερος" ≈ "smallest" and is the source of the English prefix "micro". The usage of this word appears to be more concrete than abstract.
"μεγας" ≈ "great" and is the source of the English prefix "mega".
"ανάγκη" ≈ "necessity, constraint, compulsion, force" and is used by Amos, Jesus, Barnabas, etc., as the word "compulsion" in "yoke" of "compulsion".
46. Matthew 5:14 Hill climbing potential
Matthew 5:14 Ye are the light of the world. A city that is set on an hill cannot be hid. [kjv]
υμεις εστε το φως του κοσμου ου δυναται πολις κρυβηναι επανω ορους κειμενη [gnt]
In Greek philosophy (e.g., Aristotle), the word in the
GNT often translated as "
energy" or "
work" is that of
"actuality". In the same manner, the word often translated as "
power" is that of
"potentiality". In modern
OOP (Object Oriented Programming) programming terms:
"potentially" relates to the idea of a class (abstract idea) [Plato's original sense]
"actuality" relates to the idea of an object (concrete reality) [Aristotle's added sense]
This is especially true for the writings of Paul since he was writing to a Greek audience who would have understood those parts of Greek philosophy.
47. Things
Aristotle talks about the difference between "
things" such as "
counters" and the "
words" used to talk about those "
things".
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Details are left as a future topic.
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There is a difference between a thing and talking about a thing. Kurt Gödel (Austrian logician, mathematician, philosopher)
48. Aristotle: Early decisions
The idea that early decisions are more important than later decisions predates Aristotle.
English: It is perhaps a true proverb which says that the beginning of anything is the most important. (Loeb#100, p. 153)
Greek: μέγιστον γὰρ ἴσως ἀρχὴ παντός, ὥσπερ λέγεται. Aristotle: Sophistic Refutations [184a]
That is, if a bad decision is made early, any later decisions depend on that bad decision.
The translator appears to reverse the order of the thoughts expressed by Aristotle. That is, Aristotle is using a top-down, backward-chaining, approach but the translator has changed it to a bottom-up, forward-chaining, approach. The English word "
proverb" is added. Aristotle just says that some say this.
[correctness vs. speed]
49. Aristotle: Opinion and knowledge
English: These considerations make it clear that it is impossible to have opinion and knowledge at the same time about the same object; otherwise one would apprehend that the same thing both could and could not be otherwise. (Loeb#391, p. 171)
Greek: Φανερὸν δ' ἐκ τούτων ὅτι οὐδὲ δοξάζειν ἅμα τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ ἐπίστασθαι ἐνδέχεται.ἅμα γὰρ ἂν ἔχοι ὑπόληψιν τοῦ ἄλλως ἔχειν καὶ μὴ ἄλλως τὸ αὐτό· Aristotle: Posterior Analytics [89a]
One destroys an opinion posing as knowledge by pointing out invalid logic, assumptions, etc. If a model explains some, but not all, phenomena, one cannot discredit the model by pointing out what it does not explain. One really needs to come up with a better model. Example:
Older model: Newtonian physics (still valid in many respects)
Newer model: quantum and/or relativistic physics
50. Aristotle: Posterior Analytics
English: Quickness of wit is a sort of flair for hitting upon the middle term without a moment's hesitation. A man sees that the moon always has its bright side facing the sun, and immediately realizes the reason: that it is because the moon derives its brightness from the sun; or he sees someone talking to a rich man, and decides that it is because he is trying to borrow money; or he understands why people are friends, because they have a common enemy. (Loeb#391, p. 171)
Greek: Ἡ δ' ἀγχίνοιά ἐστιν εὐστοχία τις ἐν ἀσκέπτῳ χρόνῳ τοῦ μέσου, οἷον εἴ τις ἰδὼν ὅτι ἡ σελήνη τὸ λαμπρὸν ἀεὶ ἔχει πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον, ταχὺ ἐνενόησε διὰ τί τοῦτο, ὅτι διὰ τὸ λάμπειν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου· ἢ διαλεγόμενον πλουσίῳ ἔγνω διότι δανείζεται· ἢ διότι φίλοι, ὅτι ἐχθροὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ. Aristotle: Posterior Analytics [89b]
[Churchill]
51. Aristotle: Posterior Analytics
English: In all these cases, perception of the extreme terms enables him to recognize the cause or middle term. A stands for "bright side facing the sun", and C for "moon". Then B, "deriving brightness from the sun", applies to C, "moon" and "A", "having the bright side facing the source of its brightness", applies to B. Thus A applies to C through B. (Loeb#391, p.172)
Greek: πάντα γὰρ τὰ αἴτια τὰ μέσα [ὁ] ἰδὼν τὰ ἄκρα ἐγνώρισεν. τὸ λαμπρὸν εἶναι τὸ πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον ἐφ' οὗ Α, τὸ λάμπειν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου Β, σελήνη τὸ Γ. ὑπάρχει δὴ τῇ μὲν σελήνῃ τῷ Γ τὸ Β, τὸ λάμπειν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου· τῷ δὲ Β τὸ Α, τὸ πρὸς τοῦτ' εἶναι τὸ λαμπρόν, ἀφ' οὗ λάμπει· ὥστε καὶ τῷ Γ τὸ Α διὰ τοῦ Β. Aristotle: Posterior Analytics [89b]
$
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"A", "B", "C" sequence.
Middle term is "B".
|
 |
"Ask", "seek", "knock" sequence.
Middle term is "seek".
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52. Aristotle: Metaphysics
Reality, as in physics, is subject to probabilities and errors in measurement, etc.
Logic is not subject to such errors but is subject to undecidability, etc., as in giving up completeness to get consistency (for predicate logic).
English: ... physics also is a kind of wisdom, but it is not the first kind. (Hermes Language Reference, p. 121)
Greek: … ἔστι δὲ σοφία τις καὶ ἡ φυσική, ἀλλ' οὐ πρώτη. Aristotle: Μεταφυσικά/βιβλίο α 6:1 [1005b]
To relate science (reality) and logic (via coded information interpretation):
Science cannot prove that God exists but neither can science disproved that God does not exist.
To go outside the system, one can use a coded information argument (coded information exists, coded information cannot arise by chance).
53. End of page
Aristotle continues about "nature" as "truth" and "law" as "opinion".
