Well begun is half done. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

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A software engineering principle, based on the 80-20 rule, is that 80% of the functionality (of a software program) can be achieved with 20% of the (overall) effort. The remaining 20% of the functionality takes 80% of the (overall) effort.

More: Pareto principle: 80-20 rules

Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) in his works called Metaphysics dealt with the ideas of abstract dimensions of mathematics and the apparent dimensions of reality.

More: Ephesians 3:18 : From lowest depth to highest height

Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) was the personal tutor of Alexander the Great who command an army of over 10,000 soldiers traveling over 10,000 miles in 15 years (mostly on foot), never losing a battle, and conquering the known world at the time.

In the 4th Century BC, Aristotle, personal tutor of Alexander the Great, wrote many important books, including a book on physics or "nature" (i.e., reality).

The modern Greek word "φύση" (FEE-see) ≈ "nature". The modern Greek word "φυσική" (fee-see-KEE) ≈ "physics" which is the study of the reality of time and space as we know it.

Many years later, in cataloging his works, a collection of works that were hard to categorize were bound together and put after the Aristotle's book on "physics".

This collection of works become known as «τα μετά τα φυσικά», or, literally, "the (book) after the physics" where "physics" had to do, in part, with observed reality, mathematical abstraction, and the correspondence between them.

In the "after the physics" book, Aristotle addressed causation, mathematics, a divine creator(s), etc. The word "metaphysics" became known as heavenly or out-of-world ideas (religious, etc.).

A recurring theme in Aristotle's work on "metaphysics" was that of separating logical reality from physical reality.

A useful $13 book (Spring 2021), no commentary, just the text, is Aristotle's Metaphysics in English Latin and Ancient Greek from Hermes Language Reference. ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1973405368.

The Apostle Paul, and many others, have often used a teaching method demonstrated and used by Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher) , personal tutor of Alexander the Great, some 400 years earlier and still used today.

• Tell them what you are going to say.
• Say it.
• Tell you what you told them.

Aristotle does not appear to have defined this method. He just used it a lot and others copied him.

The word "eristic", as in a reasoning process, goes back to Aristotle and is discussed in his works Prior analytics and Sophistical refutations (and referenced from his other works).

Aristotle did not like the idea of "sophists" using bad logic to make money from people by convincing them of things that were not true. These things were often the things that these people wanted to hear. This is similar to a false prophet in the Bible, a false teacher throughout history. etc.

Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

It is not enough to win a war; it is more important to organize the peace. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The high-minded man must care more for the truth than for what people think. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

A friend to all is a friend to none. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The worst form of inequality is to try to make unequal things equal. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

Those that know, do. Those that understand, teach. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

A typical modern progression in teaching is the following, partly tongue-in-cheek but with some basis in reality.

• Those that cannot do, teach.
• Those that cannot teach, administrate.

The secret to humor is surprise. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The ancient Greek word "ἑρμηνεύς" ≈ "interpreter" was introduced to science and philosophy by Aristotle in his work entitled "Περὶ Ἑρμηνεία" ≈ "About meaning".

The Latin title is "De Interpretatione" ≈ "On Interpretation" .

Aristotle wrote a book called On Sophistic Refutations in which he detailed the "false reasoning" used by Sophists (from the Greek word for "wisdom") who would use invalid logic to convince others of ideas to make money for themselves. In English, "sophistic" logic or "false reasoning" is "sophistry".
One of the many types of invalid logic detailed by Aristotle was "eristic" reasoning. Paul uses that word often but it is often translated, without the "bad logic" connection, as "strife"

More: Eristic reasoning creates strife and contention

The ancient Greek word "παραλογίζομαι" ≈ "reason falsely" is used often by Aristotle in his work On sophistic refutations. Paul uses this word in Colossians - a book that uses many Aristotelian words. Apparently "false reasoning" in "teaching" was a problem at the church at Colossae.
The Latin for "enticing words" is "subtle sermons".

One meaning: Beware lest anyone use false reasoning on you with subtle sermons.

More: Colossians 2:1-23 Philosophy and false reasoning through subtle sermons

The energy of the mind is the essence of life. Aristotle (Greek scientist and philosopher)

The quote means "The actuality/thinking of the mind is the essence/potentiality of life".
Aristotle first coined the ancient Greek word "ενεργεί" ≈ "actuality" (in his usage) and that means, literally, "inner work" or "in working". That is, "thinking" in contrast to a "potential".

This might be compared and/or contrasted with "I think, therefore I am" from Descartes.

More: René Descartes

In his Sophistic Refutations, Aristotle presents, at length, the fallacy of the affirming of the consequent. This fallacy is often used in marketing. Here is an example.

• "champions eat Wheaties" does not mean that
• "eating Wheaties makes one a champ".

Other names: converse error (logic, not the shoe company), confusion of necessity and sufficiency. Proper reversal of the conditional probability requires Bayes Rule.

More: Conditional probability

More: Bayesian statistics and models

Aristotle says that in addition to showing why apparent but false reasoning is false, one should, in addition, show why it appeared to be true.

Recognizing bad reasoning based on what one thinks is true is harder than just turning down the actual "temptation".

More: Matthew 4:1-11 Examining evil temptations

Aristotle uses the Greek word for "coming to be" or "birth" many times in his works. One of Aristotle's works is the ancient Greek word "Περὶ γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς" ≈ "On the coming to be and passing away" (of the universe).

Aristotle uses a Greek word for "dissolving" that is not the Greek word translated as "dissolve" in the GNT.

• Jesus says that he did not come to "dissolve the law" (incorrect translation).
• Jesus says that he did not come to "reside in the law" (correct translation). He came to "reside" with sinners such as Zacchaeus (same Greek word).





More: Matthew 5:17 Leave the light on but do not use the law as a residence inn

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The ancient Greek word "διάκρινω" ≈ "separate, distinguish, discern"

Aristotle uses this word often in his work Meteorologica. In this case, the "through separation" is that of "evaporation" or "separation of elements".

More: A haughty and high-up meteor

More: Discerning doubts about doubts

The ancient Greek word (rough breathing) "ὅρος" ≈ "boundary, definition" and is the source of the English word "horizon".
Aristotle often emphasizes the importance of "definitions" in identifying bad logic. Of course, Aristotle then defines what he means by a "definition".

• "λόγος" ≈ "rational explanation, word".
• "σημαίνω" ≈ "to indicate" and is the source, through French, of the English word "semantics".

The aspirated rough breathing comes through in Latin and into English in the sound of the letter "h". Aristotle used this word for "definition" many times. This was only used for a while in the first century BC and discontinued but persists in ancient Greek notations to this day.

More: Equivocation deception between names and meanings

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The ancient Greek word "ἑρμηνεύς" ≈ "interpreter" was introduced to science and philosophy by Aristotle in his work entitled "Περὶ Ἑρμηνεία" ≈ "About meaning". The Latin title is "De Interpretatione" ≈ "On Interpretation" .

The word "hermeneutics" comes from the ancient Greek word "ἑρμηνεύς" ≈ "interpreter" as to the meaning of something. This word appears often in the GNT. The field of "hermeneutics" is the study of the meaning of texts, especially Biblical texts. This includes syntax, semantics and both textual and non-textual (i.e., implied, nonverbal, etc.) meaning.

More: Syntax and semantics

Notice how Aristotle says

• "end", "middle" and "beginning" (top-down backward-chaining) rather than
• "beginning", "middle" and "end" (bottom-up forward chaining).

Aristotle says the "everything" while the translation says the "whole world". Some in modern Greek makes a play on words with "everything" and a panda (animal) since the words are spelled and pronounced the same.

More: Everything and all things: But wait, there's more

More: Top-down vs. bottom-up

The ancient Greek word "προσεύχομαι" ≈ "pray, vow, request" as in putting forth a "request" or "wish". Aristotle uses the shorter form "εὐχή" ≈ "prayer,wish".

The modern Greek word "ευχή" (ev-KHEE) ≈ "religious blessing, wish" and has been influenced by the GNT.


Have you ever heard someone "pray" in a church setting and, in their "prayer", state "propositions" that are "true" or "false"? This happens when someone states a "proposition" in a prayer and implicitly assumes and/or implies that what is said is "true" or "false" (depending on context).

Discuss: Should a religious "prayer" state only "requests" or "wishes" (and the reality background of them) and avoid "propositions" that are "true" or "false"? Explain your reasoning.

Discuss: Should a pastor inject personal opinions on politics or social issues as claims or statements in a prayer? This is often done to convince those in the pews that God has approved of these views.

The only part of the Lord's Prayer that is not a "wish" or "request" (except the address part at the beginning) is the part that is not in some Greek manuscripts. The TR (Textus Receptus) appears to have added this part.

More: Matthew 4:1-11 Examining evil temptations

More: 1 Timothy 4:1-16 Conversational interactions by prayer

Aristotle points out that we reason with "names" that represent "things" and not the "things" themselves.

• More than one name can represent the same thing.
• Names can represent more than one thing.

This leaves room for deception using words and "apparent logic". When you "drink" a "cup" you are not literally drinking the cup itself.
The English word "equivocation" means a deception by means of making names (or things) equal that are not actually equal. This is sometimes called "doublespeak".

More: Equivocation deception between names and meanings

Example: All men are created equal. Women are not men, so all women are not created equal.

Sometimes equivocation is used to "obfuscate" by using another word.

Details are left as a future topic.

In his On Sophistic Refutations, Aristotle says that from ancient times, nature (truth) and law (opinion) are opposites and that justice goes with the law (opinion) but not with nature (truth).

• "φύση" ≈ "nature, reality" (reality truth) as in "physics".
• "νόμος" ≈ "custom, law" (opinion truth) as in "Deuteronomy" as in "second law". The Greek for "iniquity" is "against the law".
• "δικαιοσύνη" ≈ "righteousness, justice".

Whenever Jesus, Paul, etc., use the word for "righteousness" one must determine from context what is meant. There may be double meanings.

☐ God's "righteousness" (opinion, glory, etc.).
☐ man's "righteousness" (opinion, glory, etc.).



More: Coining a customary distribution law of iniquity

Aristotle continues about "nature" as "truth" and "law" as "opinion".

• "φύση" ≈ "nature, reality" as in "physics".
• "ἀλήθεια" ≈ "truth" as in "not oblivion" or "not forgotten"
• "νόμος" ≈ "custom, law" as in "Deuteronomy" as in "second law". The Greek for "iniquity" is "against the law".
• "δοκοῦν" ≈ "opinion, expectation".
• "δόξα" ≈ "opinion, expectation" as in "doxology".



More: Greek truth as reality

More: Hebrew truth as reality

More: Luke 18:1-8 Parable of the unjust judge

The ancient Greek word "ποτήριον" ≈ "cup" as a diminutive of the ancient Greek word "ποτήρ" ≈ "cup" and from the ancient Greek word "πίνω" ≈ "drink".

It is the source of the English word "pottery".

More: Matthew 23:26 Cleaning the cup and bowl

More: Diminutives

In his work on Physics, Aristotle is refuting a claim by Anaxagoras.

• "ἐλάχιστος" ≈ "fewest, least, smallest". The usage of this word appears to be more abstract (according to some criteria) than concrete.
• "μικρότερος" ≈ "smallest" and is the source of the English prefix "micro". The usage of this word appears to be more concrete than abstract.
• "μεγας" ≈ "great" and is the source of the English prefix "mega".
• "ανάγκη" ≈ "necessity, constraint, compulsion, force" and is used by Amos, Jesus, Barnabas, etc., as the word "compulsion" in "yoke" of "compulsion".



More: Matthew 11:11 Unborn of women

In Greek philosophy (e.g., Aristotle), the word in the GNT often translated as "energy" or "work" is that of "actuality". In the same manner, the word often translated as "power" is that of "potentiality". In modern OOP (Object Oriented Programming) programming terms:

• "potentially" relates to the idea of a class (abstract idea) [Plato's original sense]
• "actuality" relates to the idea of an object (concrete reality) [Aristotle's added sense]

This is especially true for the writings of Paul since he was writing to a Greek audience who would have understood those parts of Greek philosophy.

More: The actual potency and inner workings of energy

More: Classes and objects

More: Matthew 5:14: Light of the world